# Posts

### Estimating variance: should I use n or n - 1? The answer is not what you think

Estimates of population parameters based on samples are not exact: there is always some error involved. In principle, one can estimate …

### Maximum likelihood estimation from scratch

Maximum likelihood estimates of a distribution Maximum likelihood estimation (MLE) is a method to estimate the parameters of a random …

### Beyond normality: the bootstrap method for hypothesis testing

tl;dr: Parametric bootstrap methods can be used to test hypothesis and calculate p values while assuming any particular population …

### Where do p-values come from? Fundamental concepts and simulation approach

tl;dr: P-values are tail probabilities calculated from the sampling distribution of a sample-based statistic. This sampling …

### Automatic Differentiation with Dual Numbers

tl;dr: Given any model that maps inputs to outputs, Dual Numbers can be used to calculate the exact derivative of any output with …